Water Purification Basics

&

More!

Copyright © 2004 By C. S. Brocato

This procedure is for drawing water, super-chlorination, pre-filtering, aeration of the water, flocculation, then its removal, following with sedimentation, and filtrating and chlorination again.

However, some hydrologist agree super-chlorination is enough if there is a chlorine residual (you must test for this) in the final water.

One thing that is either not emphasized, or emphasized enough is to Pre-test and post-test the water. Pre-test the water to see what you are dealing with in terms organic materials, non organic and inorganic chemicals, and this includes pathogenic organisms.

We have seen persons use water from a slough they purified; and others, who got it from a lake, bayou, or river, purifying the liquid and never connected the fact of their poor health to the water.

Their thoughts are that if they do not come down with overt water-borne illnesses, then it is not the water causing the problem.

When we saw them as patients, we asked if they were purifying their own water. Some said yes and 'That's not the cause.' Still others were using shallow wells, and in one case a deep well was the culprit.

These people never bothered to pre-test nor post-test their water supply. In the case of the well-water, 'It's tested once a year by the well people, when we call 'em out.' Or, 'We draw it yearly and send in a sample to be tested.' These people, who were showing signs of malaise, 'Just could not get over a strange bout of arthritis' in their joints and muscle aches.

We found the water needed to be tested more often, especially now that our lakes and streams are more polluted than ever. It was discovered in some, their water supply was damaged with nitrates and manganese.

One person was being treated for Parkinson's disease, when in effect, this rural country retiree went there to get away from the city and in the process of living there, started processing his own water.

Free Radical Toxicology, Edited by Kendall B. Wallace, writes in Target Organ Toxicology Series by Taylor and Francis publishers, on page 230, the following about manganese:

"Manganese is another member of this group of transition metals. Neurological signs resembling Parkinson's disease are found following excessive exposure to this mineral during the mining, handling, or processing of manganese ore. Manganism presents in several distinct phases, including an initial hyperactive, manic state ("manganese madness") an intermediate phase involving tremor and incoordination, and terminal spastic, rigid phase (72). The resemblance of the latter two stages to Parkinson's disease (PD) is pronounced and involves the basal ganglia. There is increasing evidence for the role of oxidative stress in PD, and trials involving antioxidant therapy have met with some success (73).

Dopamine and norepinephrine are able to oxidize very readily, and this requires trace amounts of transition metals. Thus, catecholaminergic pathways are especially susceptible to metal-catalyzed oxidative damage. Catalyzed dopamine auto-oxidation may then underlie manganism (74). Manganese can exist in at least four oxidative states (with a valence of 2, 3, 4, or 5), and like iron, has been shown to be capable of enhancing ROS (reactive oxygen species–WebMasters) formation in isolated systems.

Oxidative Stress — This occurs when ROS production exceeds the cells' removal capacity. "When ROS are produced faster than they can be removed by the cellular defenses, the cellular mechanisms" become stressed by reactive oxygen species.

Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)—Because oxygen is a free radical (Gilbert, 1981; Halliwell and Gutteridge, 2006), it has the tendency to form highly reactive oxygen species which can generate free radicals causing chain reactions and causing cellular component damage:

Reactive Oxygen Species

Superoxide Anion

O2	Produced by the electron transport chain and at other sites. Generates other reactive oxygen species but cannot diffuse far from the site of origin.

Hydrogen Peroxide

H2O2	Not a free radical, but can generate free radicals by reaction with a transition metal (e.g., iron: Fe2+). Can diffuse into and through cell membranes.

Hydroxyl Radical

OH.	The most reactive species in attacking biological molecules. Produced by water in the presence of iron (Fe2+).

Organic Radicals

R.	An organic free radical produced from RH (Polyunsaturated Lipid) by OH. attack. RH can be the carbon of a double bond in a fatty acid (resulting in -C.=C-) or RSH (organic thiol) (resulting in R-S.)

Organic Peroxide Radical

RCOO.

An organic peroxide radical, such as occurs during lipid degradation.

Hypochlorous Acid

HOCl

Produced in bacteria during the respiratory burst to destroy invading organisms.

Singlet Oxygen

O	Oxygen with antiparallel spins. Produced at high oxygen tensions from the absorption of energy. Decays with the release of light.

There are generally recognized two types of water pollution. Dr. I. Edward Alcamo writes in his book, the Fourth Edition of Fundamentals of Microbiology:

Water is vital to such industries as food processing, meat packing, and paper manufacturing. It is also used extensively in pharmaceutical plants and mines, and for cooling purposes in power-generating units. It irrigates agriculture lands and provides the focus for many recreational facilities. Uses such as these, however, commonly add to contamination and pollution of water.

Physical Pollution of water occurs when particulate matter such as sand or soil makes the water cloudy. Living material may also be involved when, for instance, cyanobacteria bloom during midsummer and give water the consistency of pea soup. A combination of warmth and nutrients such as phosphates or nitrates sparks this overgrowth.

Chemical Pollution results from the introduction of inorganic and organic waste to the water. For example, water passing out of a mine contains large amounts of copper or iron. Other chemical pollutants in water include phosphates and nitrates from laundry detergents as well as acids such as sulfuric acid. Radioactive wastes discharged into water by nuclear power plants, medical facilities, and industrial factories may also pose a threat to humans.

The third type of pollution, Biological Pollution, is the main concern of our discussion. This type of pollution develops from microorganisms that enter water from human waste, food processing, and meat-packing plants, medical facilities, and similar sources. Normally, water can handle biological material because heterotrophic microorganisms (organisms that use preform organic matter in their metabolism) digest organic mater to carbon dioxide, water, and useful ions (phosphates, nitrates, and sulfates). With the rapid movement of the water, aeration is constant and waste is soon diluted and eliminated. However, when water stagnates or is overloaded with waste, it cannot deal with biological material and becomes polluted.

In this immediate last paragraph, this tells one to go upstream if possible where the water is moving fast and with rapids. This rapid movement and aeration of water does not give you clean potable water; but, is helping you to clean the water even better and will wear down your filtration units less fast.

Water Pollution

Dr. Alcamo further writes:

For purposes of simplification, scientists classify water into two major types: ground water and surface water.

Ground Water originates from deep wells and subterranean springs and, because of the filtering action of soil, deep sand, and rock, it is virtually free of microorganism. (However, it appears this may be changing now as the Earth becomes more polluted–WebMasters). As the water flows up along channels, contaminants may enter it and alter its quality.

Surface Water is found in lakes, streams, and shallow wells. Its microbial population may reflect the air through which rain has passed, the meat-packing plant by which a stream flows, or the sewage treatment facility located along a river's banks. Under normal conditions, microorganisms play a significant role in aquatic life cycles by supplying food for small fish and digesting dead plants and animals.

Certain terms are significant in water microbiology. For example, water is considered contaminated when it contains a chemical or biological poison, or infectious agent. In water that is polluted, the same conditions apply, but the poison or agent is obvious. Polluted water carries an unpleasant taste, smell, or appearance. Potability, by contrast refers to the drinkability of water. Potable water is fit for consumption, while unpotable water is unfit.

An UnPolluted Water Environment

A body of unpolluted water such as a mountain lake or stream is usually low in organic nutrients, and thus, only a limited number of bacteria are present, perhaps a few thousand per milliliter. Most bacteria are soil organisms that have run off into the water during a rainfall. An example are the actinomycetes, a group of moldlike bacteria that give a musty odor to soil. They include members of the genus Streptomyces, from which many antibiotics are derived.

Other inhabitants of unpolluted waters include yeasts and mold spores, as well as Bacillus and Clostridium spores from the air. Cellulose digesters such as members of the genus Cellulomonas are also found. These bacteria digest cellulose in plant cell walls and obtain their energy from the glucose that results. Autotrophic bacteria (able to synthesize its own food from simple inorganic compounds) are also common, and free-living protozoa such as Paramecium, Euglena, Tetrahymena, and Amoeba bound.

A Polluted Water Environment

A polluted body of water such as a polluted lake or river presents a totally different picture. The water contains large amounts of organic matter from sewage, feces, and industrial sources, and the population of microorganisms is usually heterotrophic. Such organisms use preformed organic matter in their metabolism and fail to digest proteins fats, and carbohydrates completely because oxygen is lacking. Acids, bases, alcohols, and various gases thus tend to accumulate in the water.

A major type of bacteria in polluted water is coliform bacteria, a group of Gram-negative bacteria (a metabolic poison produced chiefly by this type of bacteria; endotoxins are part of the bacterial cell wall and, consequently, are released on cell disintegration; they are composed of lipid-polysaccharide-peptide complexes) nonsporeforming bacilli usually found in the human intestine. Coliform bacteria ferment lactose to acid and gas. Included in this group are Escherichia coli and species of Enterobacter. Noncoliform bacteria also common in polluted water include Streptococcus, Proteus, and Pseudomonas species.

In polluted water, microorganisms often contributed to a chain of events that drastically alter the ecology of the environment. For example, when phosphates accumulate in the water, algae may bloom. The algae supply nutrients to microorganisms, which multiply rapidly and use up the available oxygen. Soon, other protozoa, small fish, crustaceans and plants die and accumulate on the bottom. Anaerobic species of bacteria such as Desulfovibrio and Clostridium then thrive in the mud and produce gases that give the water a stench.

We are about to witness these extremes as the Earth starts its roll! "Some years ago," Dr. Alcamo writes, "health workers in Africa asked villagers to name their single greatest need. The answer was almost unanimous: 'Water.' A startling survey by the World Health Organization indicates that three of every four humans alive today do not have enough water to drink or, if water is available, the supplies are contaminated."

As one can see from the immediate above, the situation is worse today with the world-wide drought occurring. Food preparations should have been finished in August 2010! But, most are just getting to this. Everywhere, symposias are being held on Preparedness. It is really too late.

What one can do now is get canned foods and dry rice and beans and learn how to defend what they've got. But, the most important thing is to learn how to produce potable (drinkable) water and how to eat less! No one is teaching this; nor practicing this...except a very small few. Americans eat and eat and eat. Just look at them and their kids...this tells you a lot about their eating habits. And from there, much can be extrapolated. Discipline has gone out of the U. S. of A. And the rest of the industrialize world.

If you have not been taught to test for various microbes; or, minerals such as iron, calcium, manganese, magnesium and hydrogen sulfide gas, you are not going to make it. Nobody appears to be telling their audiences to test....test....test. With each batch of water one is to drink, it must be pre-tested and post-tested! There are no short cuts to potable water. And that is clarified, clean, and sweet smelling in terms of no pollution. The water may cause a gradual erosion of you health if not throughly potable!

Just remember that patient of Dr. "B"s. He thought he knew all about producing potable water and even served as an instructor at various preparedness seminars. Yet, he never tested any water, and he never even heard of manganism. He did not know when to change his filters, and no idea why he should do so. This patient was cleared up in time when he was directed to a chelation physician. He was also placed on a natural MAO inhibitor, Ginko Biloba, that allowed more dopamine activity in his brain.

Radioactive Water!

(From Nuclear War Survival Skills)

Updated And Expanded 1987 Edition

By

Cresson H. Kearny

Sources Of Water In Fallout Areas

"Survivors of a nuclear attack should realized that neither fallout particles nor dissolved radioactive elements or compounds can be removed from water by chemical disinfection or boilingb. Therefore, water should be obtained from the least radioactive sources available. Before a supply of drinking water has been exhausted, other sources should be located...the safest source listed first and the other sources listed in decreasing order of safety.

1. "Water from deep wells and from water tanks and covered reservoirs into which no fallout p;articles or fallout-contaminated water has been introduced. (Caution: Although most springb water would be safe, some spring water is surface water that has flowed into and through underground channels without having been filtered.)

2. "Water from covered seepage pits or shallow hand-dug wells....

3. "Contaminated water from deep lakes. Water from a deep lake would be much less contaminated by dissolved radioactive material and fallout particles than water from a shallow pond...fallout particles settle to the bottom more rapidly in deep lakes than in shallow ponds, which are agitated more by wind.

4. "Contaminated water from shallow ponds and other shallow, still water.

5. "Contaminated water from streams, which would be especially dangerous if the stream is muddy from the first heavy rains after fallout is deposited. The first runoff will contain most of the radioactive material that can be dissolved from fallout particles deposited on the drainage area.

"The wells of farms and rural homes would be the best sources of water for millions of survivors. Following a massive nuclear attack, the electric pumps and the pipes in wells usually would be useless.

Removing Fallout Particles

And Dissolved Radioactive From Water

Filtering

"Filtering through earth removes essentially all of the fallout particles and more of the dissolved radioactive material than does boiling-water distillation, a generally impractical purification method that does not eliminate dangerous radioactive iodines. Earth filters are also more effective in removing radioactive iodines than are ordinary ion-exchange water softeners or charcoal filters.

"In areas of heavy fallout, about 99% of the radioactivity in water could be removed by filtering it through ordinary earth."

The following is a simple effective filter using ordinary earth:

1.	"Perforate the bottom of a 5-gallon can, a large bucket, a watertight wastebasket, or a similar container with about a dozen nail holes. Punche the holes from the bottom upward, staying within about 2 inches of the center.

2.	"Place a layer about 1 ½ inches thick of washed pebbles, or small stones on the bottom of the can. If pebbles are not available, twisted coat-
hanger wires or small sticks.

3.	"Cover the pebbles with one thickness of terrycloth towel, burlap sackcloth, or other quite porous cloth. Cut the cloth in a roughly circular shape about 3 inches larger than the diameter of the can.

4.	"Take soil containing some clay–almost any soil will do–from at least 4 inches below the surface of the ground. (Nearly all fallout particles remain near the surface exscept after deposition on sand or gravel.

5.	"Pulverize the soil, then gently press it in layers over the cloth that covers the pebbles, so that the cloth is held snugly against the sides of the can. Do not use pure clay (not pourous enough) or sand (too porous). The soil in the can should be 6 to 7 inches thick.

6.	"Completely cover the surface of the soil layer with one inch thickness of fabric as porous as a bath towel. This is to keep the soil from being eroded as water is poured into the filtering can. The cloth also will remove some of the particles from the water. A dozen small stones placed on the cloth near its edges will secure it adequately.

7.	"Support the filter can on rods or sticks placed across on the cloth near its edges will secure it adequately.

8.	"Support the filter can on rods or sticks placed across the top of a container that is larger in diameter than the filter can. (A dishpan will do.)

"The contaminated water should be poured into the filter can, preferably after allowing it to settle as described below. The filtered water should be disinfected by one of the previously described methods.

"If the 6 or 7 inches of filtering soil is a sandy clay loam, the filter initially will deliver about 6 quarts of clear water per hour. (If the filtration rate is faster than about 1 quart in 10 minutes, remove the upper fabric and recompress the soil. After several hours the rate will be reduced to about 2 quarts per hour.

"When the filtering rate becomes too slow, it can be increased by removing and rinsing the surface fabric, removing about ½ inch of soil, and then replacing the fabric. The life of a filter is extended and its efficiency increased

if muddy water is first allowed to settle for several hours in a separate container, as described below. After about 50 quarts have been filtered, rebuild the filter by replacing the used soil with fresh soil.

•	"Settling

"Settling is one of the easiest methods to remove most fallout particles from water. Furthermore, if the water to be used is muddy or murky, settling it before filtering will extend the life of the filter. The procedure is as follows:

1.	"Fill a bucket or other deep container three-quarters full of the contaminated water.

2.	"Dig pulverized clay or clayey soil from a depth of four or more inches below ground surface, and stir it into the water. Use about 1-inch depth of dry clay or dry clayey soil for every 4-inch depth of water. Stir until practically all the clay particles are suspended in the water.

3.	"Let the clay settle for at least 6 hours. The settling clay particles will carry most of the suspended fallout particles to the bottom and cover them.

4.	"Carefully dip our or siphon the clear water, and disinfect it.

•	"Settling and Filtering

"Although dissolved radioactive material usually is only a minor danger in fallout-contaminated water, it is safest to filter even the clear water produced by settling, if an earth filter is available. Finally—as always—the water should be disinfected."

You WebMasters advocate to post-test for chemicals, pH, etc. Also, you could use Alum to remove the fallout particles.

Dr. "B" Recommends The Following That Imitates

A Municipal Treatment Water System In Miniature

1.	Draw raw water, after having cleared away as much debris as possible.

2.	Test pH of water for acidity. If not having an acidity of 4 to 5, acidify with vinegar, lemon juice (standardized), or, which we find best, powdered vitamin C. It can be used not only for acidifying the water, but also for ingesting a little in clean water twice a day. You can even use citric acid if you have it stored for canning. You can also use vitamin C for canning to reduce certain microbial growths that do not tolerate an acidic environment. Standardize lemon juice—if you don't mind the lemon flavored water—such as ReaLemon Juice.

3.	Stir the water. Test the pH once more. It should be definitely acidic.

4.	Add appropriate amount of chlorine to a gallon of water (40 drops to a gallon). However, we want a residual chlorine level, so we do Superchlorination, which is nothing more than adding much more chlorine, about an extra 40 to 50 drops more, so that when the chlorine reacts with particulate matter, we have residual chlorine left over to kill the germs.

5.	Now add, for 1 gallon, 1/8 teaspoon of Alum (Aluminum Sulfate) and stir. Let sit no longer than about 30 minutes, or material such as aluminum or other materials tied up in the gel will be relased and some to much goes back into the solution.

6.	Take another empty, clean bucket, fitted with a towel, with a depression in the center, such that the towel forms a small cone into the bucket. Tie a string, a cord, a small clothesline rope, or take a small bungee cord with hooks on both ends and hook it around the towel outside the collection bucket, and pour the raw water slowly through this prepared bucket with the towel. The cord will keep the raw water from causing the terry towel in place.

7.	We now suggest, as you saw pictures on our Water Page, and given here again, to aerate this water to remove volatile organic compounds by placing this water into a sprayer and spraying in a long arc, allowing it to fall into a clean wader pool. This also oxygenates the water such that the oxygen, a strong oxidant, will combine with iron and other compounds making them easier to remove. (Procedures in municipal water plants may differ in approach, but all incorporate these ideas along the purification process. Generally, a municipal water supply plant draws raw water from their raw water reservoir, then it goes into spray aeration, then to mixing changer where flocculating agents are added. From here, the raw water is moved into a flocculation tank where the flocculating agents are churned in the water and large jellylike masses, or flocs, form. Then, after flocs form, the water is moved to a sedimentation tank. The clarified (clear) water is now allowed to go from the sedimentation tank to the filtration unit and from there, chlorine (chlorination) is added as the water travels to a storage unit for distribution. The water is now potable.)

8.	Now take this water – if you have an assistant, this is easier – take up the pool and pour the water into your filtration bucket that has been prepared with holes, an aquarium pad, sterilized pebbles, pad on bottom, pebbles, sand, and clay, or fuller's earth, on top. Or you can use a sterilized cloth separating each layer that rises to the top and on the outside. It may be cheesecloth if you so desire. We recommend lint-free large cup towels.

9.	Next, we run various dipsticks, listed here for nickle, manganese, iron, and pH. If nitrate is present and the pH is not at 7, adjust up (using bicarbonate of soda) or down (a pinch of vitamin C) to bring it either way close to 7.

10.	If all the tests come out negative and the pH is at or near 7, you should still add chlorine and adjust the pH to 4 to 5 plus to control any errant microbes, and/or because of sloppy technique. Chlorine works best in a slightly acid environment. Stir. Let rest for 10 minutes. Pour it through your Aqua Rain water filter. The latter gives added protection and does not wear down your Aqua Rain water filtration unit, if you have one or a "Big" (expensive) Burkey.

11.	However, Dr. "B" has a distillation unit known as the e-still. You may be able to find one on e-bay, as they are not being made any longer. From here, place the pan of the distillation unit over an open fire and collect the distillate, which flows through a carbon filter. After so many gallons (30 or so gallons), boil the carbon to recharge it somewhat, though it isn't under pressure or high enough heat, but it can be reused, or simply replace that carbon after so many uses (30 to 40 gallons) with new GAC (granulated activated carbon).

One problem exists here, however. This unit is not ventilated to remove, as the distillate flows over, the volatile organic chemicals, and other chlorine by-
products that may be formed, will do so too. Hence, simply move to the side a little bit, the boiler pan, leaving a small crack between the boiler pan (ventilating) and the rest of the unit. Then enjoy real, good tasting, pure water.

Two chemicals usually found in the home will be effective for water disinfection.

Chlorine bleach (Clorox, Purex, etc...) is an excellent disinfectant for water. (Note: Chlorine kills bacteria, but only some to many viruses, depending on the chlorination (simple to Superchlorination). Iodine kills bacteria and viruses.) Check the label for the percentage of sodium hypochlorite (chlorine) present. Then follow this chart:

1%, 40 drops per gallon

1. 4 to 6 %, 8 drops per gallon

2. 7 to 10 %, 4 drops per gallon

Mix thoroughly and let stand for 30 minutes. The water should have a slight chlorine odor. If not, repeat the dose and let the water stand 15 minutes more. Chlorine tends to break down after 6 months in your stored water.

Iodine from your medicine cabinet or first aid kit will also purify water. It will usually be found at the strength of 2% United States Pharmacopoeia (U.S.P).

1. For clear water, add 20 drops per gallon

2. For cloudy water, add 40 drops per gallon

Let stand in a sealed container for 30 minutes before drinking. If you do not like iodine taste; filter through Granular Activated Charcoal. Or, you can use iodine removal tablets from your sports store.

The Following Techniques

Need To Be Practiced and Followed

And Taught To Every Member In The Family

Making A Solar Still

Aeration Of Water

An Emergency Treatment Process For Potable Water

The Following is an emergency treatment process. It is slow, but, if you need more water and fuel is not a problem, then you can make your own distillation unit. For large amounts of water, use a large hot water bath canner.

The first thing to do is to draw the raw water for the distillation container you will use. Then, pour the water through a cloth filter to remove as much debris as possible. You can flocculate, if desired to remove even more 'flotsam.' However, this is optional for this particular treatment process only.

The next thing is to pour or decant the water into your hot water bath canner halfway with the raw water.

Then, you are going to perform a distillation procedure in your own kitchen; or, in your backyard, or campsite if you have to run for it–most to many will, if the ocean is chasing you inland and you beat the ocean, then, you can use sea water.

The process of Distillation is as follows:

1.	Bring the water you have decanted into your distillation tank (the large Hot Water Bath Canner) to a boil; but first,

2.	Tie a cup or suitable object to the handle on the pot's lid and so that the cup will hang right side up when the lid is upside-down.

3.	Place upside-down lid, with cup attached, on the large pot and,

4.	Boil the water for 20 minutes or a little longer, depending on the cup size and pot you are using.

5.	The water that drips from the lid to the cup is distilled.

6.	But, note this: If the upside-down lid on the distillation tank, the pot of the How Water Bath Container is now cracked, Volatile Organic Chemicals such as trihalomethanes and other chlorine byproducts will come over with the distilled water. These are not good for your health. Therefore, crack a portion of the lid so as it does allow some venting of the boiling water.

See Here for process of making a simple distillation unit for necessity.

Note-1:

Distillation Removes Nitrates. Activated Carbon is rated from Poor To Fair: 0 to 20% removal.

Note-2:

Frank Bell, in 1981, at that time an EPA official, cautioned people not to believe all they read on a filter manufacturer's activated carbon filter. The claims are often exaggerated.

There are YouTube videos showing 'experts' drawing raw water, throwing in a 'little' chlorine bleach, stirring and letting it rest for 30 minutes; then, processing through a terry towel and next, a charcoal filter. When you look at some of these people, one can see they are not moving too well.

Note-3:

When and where you draw raw water, as given above, rapidly moving water over rocks causing rapids resulting in aeration of the water is important but does still necessitate full water treatment protocol. Furthermore, stagnant or very slow moving water needs particular attention. This same attention must not be shorted even if your water comes from the 'rapids' in a mountain stream.

Be extremely cautious, as in any water purification procedure, when drawing water from a lake or bay in the summer, even if the lake waters are moving fast. The reasons are multiple:

•	Summer boaters illegally empty their tanks holding waste into the bay or lake prior to docking.

•	Many fisherman are of the belief that cleaning their catch on board ship; or, on the docks and dumping the remains back into the lake or bay is harmless.

•	Summertime water pollution is increased by several other factors:

1.	"Animals tend to be more active in the summer and tend to defecate and drink from the water. Both actions pollute the water.

2.	"Summer thunderstorms cause substantial soil runoff of organisms from animal remains as well as fertilizer pollution runoff.

3.	"Bathers introduce intestinal organisms to the water. You know how this occurs.

4.	"Algae invade the water inducing fish kills and bacterial growth during decomposition.

5.	"The heat leads to bacterial proliferation. This is especially so when bay or lake waters are stagnant." Ibid, Alcamo, Fourth Edition.